VI. The Rise/Fall of Christendom

     Aside from the history books, one will rarely hear any reference these days to a geo-political, cultural entity called "Christendom."  After its victory over the Roman Empire, Christianity gradually came to dominate the general life of Europe through an institutionalized form of political and cultural elements which many have designated "Christendom."  The noted journalist, Malcomb Muggeridge, has distinguished "Christendom" from Christianity,

Christendom, however, is something quite different from Christianity, being the administrative or power structure, based on the christian religion and constructed by men.  The founder of Christianity was, of course, Christ.  The founder of Christendom - the Emperor Constantine.  You might even say that Christ himself abolished Christendom before it began by stating that his kingdom was not of this world.  Christendom, on the other hand, began when Constantine, as an act of policy, decided to tolerate indeed positively favor, the Church, uniting it to the secular state by the closest possible ties.^[1]

     Only those ignorant of history can fail to appreciate the influence of Christianity in European history during the last 2,000 years.  Christian theism was the dominant world view in western culture up to the early 1700's and it has only been since the 1960’s that positive discussion of the Bible has been officially barred from the halls of public education and, unofficially, from the mass media.  For the general culture, life proceeded on the assumptions that the God of the Bible existed, that he had revealed himself in nature and Scripture and could be known, and that the universe was his creation and human beings were his special creation.  Human identity, morality, and hope had a basis and there was such a thing as "absolute truth" and error ‑ the apostles of absurdity had not yet gained control of the microphones, universities, and publishing houses.  Cultural discussions occurred within this context and this is evident in the U.S. Declaration of Independence (1776), which openly speaks of “Nature’s God . . . all men are created equal . . . endowed by their Creator with rights . . . Appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world . . . reliance on the protection of Divine Providence.”  Leading up to the American civil war (1860-1865), both sides of the slavery issue tried to defend their view with the Bible.  Even the U.S. Supreme Court openly cited Biblical precedents in deciding cases into the early 1900’s.  Muggeridge, again, describes the end of Christendom,

Previous civilizations have been overthrown from without by the incursion of barbarian hordes.  Christendom has dreamed up its own dissolution in the minds of its own intellectual elites.  Our barbarians are home products, indoctrinated at the public expense, urged on by the media systematically stage by stage, dismantling Christendom, depreciating and deprecating all its values.  The whole social structure is now tumbling down, dethroning its God, undermining all its certainties.  All this, wonderfully enough, is being done in the name of health, wealth, and happiness of all mankind.^[2]

     Although western culture was dominated by Christian thought for centuries, being born in the western world no longer guarantees anything, for world views have moved with the transportation and communication revolutions.  If we are to understand the seriously fragmented body of beliefs that fall under the cultural umbrella term “Christendom,” then we need to first acquire a “big picture” understanding of the flow of major elements and ideas in Western civilization during the Church Age.  Not only has “Christendom” witnessed a major fragmentation of “Christian” beliefs since 1500, but also a strong anti-Bible/anti-Christianity secular movement has grown to prominence.

     As we begin, let’s consider a graphic chart that outlines the major flow of ideas and worldviews in Western Civilization during this period,

I. The Historical and Theological Flow

     Understanding the many “versions” of Christian Doctrine and Practice that have appeared over the centuries requires a basic knowledge of Church History, because everything has developed from a combination of sources and circumstances.  Every “version” of Christianity has some roots in the Bible, but then a wide variety of philosophical elements, reactions to historic situations, and human personalities come into play to produce the numerous “variations” from what the Bible alone provides.

II. The Early Apostolic Church (30-313 A.D.)

     In this first era, we have several easy-to-identify elements: (1) the New Testament/Apostolic roots of Christianity, (2) its struggle to survive Roman persecution, and (3) a few doctrinal variations that arise.

     Early Apostolic Christianity - This is what we find recorded in the New Testament, with a growing number of independent congregations following the Apostles’ doctrine (Acts 2:42, which was the same in each group - 1Corinthians 4:17; 7:17).  Each congregation was under its own shepherds (Acts 14:23) and met weekly for the Lord ’s Supper (Acts 20:7), prayer, teaching, and fellowship.  The early Christians were often a close, sacrificial brotherhood, meeting in each other’s homes (Acts 2:44-47; 5:42; Romans 16:3-51Corinthians 16:19; Colossians 4:15; Philemon 2).  The first step in developing organization above the congregational level is hinted at by Ignatius (early 2^nd century), who advocated a single bishop or “head bishop” in each congregation to “break the tie” on dealing with heresy.

     Persecution - Christianity was “hassled” in some areas by the Jewish community from 30-65 AD (see the Book of Acts), but tended to be ignored by Roman officials (Acts 18:12-17) because it was viewed as a “sect” of Judaism, a legal Roman religion.  This began to change in 64/65 A.D., when Emperor Nero burned a portion of the city of Rome that he wanted to renovate and blamed it on the Christians, who were then subjected to persecution.  This persecution resumed in the reign of Domitian (90’s AD), as “emperor-worship” developed in the later first century AD.  Once identified as a “new” and illegal religion, Christianity was persecuted by Roman emperors in ten recognizable eras (two of which were Empire-wide attempts to destroy it) between 65-313 A.D., after which Constantine legalized and began to favor Christianity.

     Doctrinal Controversies - The “Apostles’ Doctrine” was not all that was being taught during this era, with a number of “variations” gradually showing up.  The Ebionites tried to confine Jesus to Judaism, holding he was a spokesman for God but just a man, and they condemned Paul for not requiring the forms of Judaism for Gentiles.  The Greek Mystery Religions were still around and capitalized on outward similarities with Christianity - salvation through union with one who had been killed by his enemies and raised to life again, rituals where old life is washed away, and a meal where believers shared in the body and blood of the one crucified and so shared in his resurrection.  Gnosticism arose from pre-Christian paganism and took many forms: (1) sharp Platonic distinction between matter (evil) and spirit (good) and, thus, “salvation” was viewed as the freeing of spirit from matter (i.e. the body), (2) they claimed to possess "gnosis" or secret knowledge revealed to them and transmitted to initiates (incl. secret sayings of Jesus).  Gnosticism was highly syncretistic - borrowing the most "saleable" elements from many sources, although it tended to downplay the historical realities of Christianity.^[3]

     Marcionism began with Marcion of Rome (died 160 AD.?), who taught that the world was created by the evil god, called the Demiurge, the "God of the Old Testament" who rejoices in warfare, bloodshed, wrath, and vindictiveness.  The second God remained hidden until out of love He revealed himself in Jesus.  Christ, to Marcion, was divine and only appeared to be a man (Docetism "to appear" -Christ "appeared" human).  Marcion, because of his anti-Jew/OT bias, trimmed his "NT Canon" down to Paul and Luke and edited some things out of them to fit his theology.  Marcionite churches enjoined chastity and celibacy (sex perpetuates the flesh, so it is evil).

     Montanism began with Montanus, a converted priest of Cybele, around 156 A.D. He encouraged two women to leave their husbands and they became "prophetesses." They claimed the charismatic "spiritual gifts" were restored and the end of world, with New Jerusalem to come down soon in Phrygia.  Claiming the Holy Spirit still spoke though prophets, Montanus claimed to be the "Spirit of truth/Comforter" (paraclete) of John 14-16.  He is mentioned by Eusebius (book 5, chapter 16) and followers could still be found into the fifth century.  Even the North African father Tertullian was a follower for awhile.

     Monarchianism split into two basic alternative views defending strict monotheism.  The Dynamic/Adoptionist view abandoned the deity of Jesus, holding Him as a mere man chosen by God.  Jesus was alleged to be uniquely indwelt by the Holy Spirit.  This closely resembled the Ebionite view.  The other option, Modalism, held Jesus to be a manifestation of God Himself and abandoned the distinction between Father and Son (2Cor.3:17,18; 4:4,5; Heb.1:3).  In essence, Christ was a theophany - the Father became the Son, was born, and suffered (Is.45:5; Jn.10:30; 14:9,11; Acts 20:28).  This view was also known as "Patripassianism" (the Father suffered) and Sabellianism (after an early teacher, Sabellius).  Tertullian (160-220) opposed modalism and defended the separation of three personalities, but one substance.

     Quartodicimianism - Also called the "fourteenthers," this controversy concerned the date of Easter.  Many Asia Minor Christians continued to celebrate Easter on the original Passover date - 14th of Nisan, while other Christians wanted Easter to coincide with a Sunday (the Sunday after Passover).  Early differences over when to fast/feast did not end in any clear solution.  Victor of Rome (189-199) excommunicated the Asia Minor churches over the issue, although Polycrates (bishop of Ephesus) and Irenaeus (bishop of Lyons) protested that Victor had no authority over these churches.  The excommunication was withdrawn, but various cycles were introduced (19/84/111 year cycles).  Nicea set the policy followed today - Easter is the first Sunday following the full moon after the vernal equinox (March 21).

III. Controversies & Councils  (313-800 A.D.)

     Several things changed significantly after Roman persecution ceased.  This was an era in which the Church around the Mediterranean changed a great deal in its structure and also in doctrinal matters.

     Controversies - The Donatist Controversy was concerned with whether or not the orthodoxy or personal morality of a priest or bishop invalidated the sacraments they performed.  The results contributed to the idea that the validity of sacraments is tied to the official office of clergy and not their spiritual condition.  Arianism was a Christological/Trinitarian issue, with Arius arguing that the Father alone was true God, while Jesus was a subordinate, created deity (Pr.8:22; Jn.14:22) who had a beginning, but he wasn't true humanity (no soul) or true deity (because he had a beginning): (A) Jesus is the first created being, (B) He was the medium of creation - everything else was created through him, and (C) while supreme in rank, he is "of an alterable nature" and remains good by choice.  Arian theology is similar to that of modern Jehovah’s Witnesses.

     The Novation Schism was similar to the Donatist Controversy in that it involved questions about those who had lapsed during persecution, but this one focused on how soon lapsi should be allowed back into the fellowship.  The issue also came up as to whether or not baptisms were valid if performed by groups declared to be “heretics”?  From this root also grew the notion that “outside the church there is no salvation” - However, the definition of "church" is all-important.  In Ignatius' view, the "church" includes only those obedient to the bishop.  After centuries of refinement, this would come to mean "obedience to the Roman bishop - the Pope" and this is exactly what Innocent III (1198-1216) would assert.^[4]

     Neo-Platonism - Literally “new Plato," this philosophy mixes elements from Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy with Oriental religion and Theosophy, polytheism with monotheism, and superstition with culture.^[5]  In Neo-platonism, existence is like a ladder with the top near the light, but the bottom is mired in the realm of the irrational and lifeless.  However, the mind can overcome the hindrances of the psyche to experience the sublime.  Neo-platonism sought the direct union of the soul with God.^[6]  The founder was Ammonius Saccas, an Alexandrian of Christian parents who apostatized and died in 243 A.D.  His pupil, Plotinus (204-269 A.D.), developed Neo-platonist ideas into a systematic form and gave them their popularity.  Plotinus also had a prize-pupil, Porphyry (d. 304), and both of these men taught in Rome.  Neo-Platonism became the religion of the educated classes, combining as it did the love for the ideal, the supernatural, and the mystical.  It became an alternative "world religion" for those who did not want to be Christians.  The pagan magician and soothsayer, Apollonius, was idealized into an alternative "Christ" figure.  Porphyry attacked the Bible, employing "Bible criticism" to suggest "contradictions” between the Old and New Testaments, even amongst the Apostles.  The Book of Daniel was "late-dated" so that it became "history" rather than predictive prophecy.  Porphyry claimed that the original pure doctrine of Jesus was much different from the adulterated doctrine of the apostles.

     Macedonianism (Semi-Arians) made the same alteration to the doctrine of the Holy Spirit that Arians did with Jesus - they declared the Holy Spirit to be a creature (like angels) subordinate to the Son.  Apollinarianism was a response to Arianism, asserting that: (1) Christ assumed a human body with its life principle (animal soul), (2) the Logos took the place of higher rational principle, (3) Jesus was not fully human (because complete humanity sins and cannot be worshipped).  Essentially, Appollinaris was saying that Jesus was a human shell with a Divine intellect, not having a human spirit or soul.  The "Dual-nature" councils said Christ was completely God and man (the God-man) on the basis that the crucifixion/ redemption required Jesus' full humanity. Monophysitism employed the term monophysis meaning "one nature" in Christ (God suffered on the cross).  Also called Eutychianism, it was similar to Apollinarianism in that it was an issue of "one nature" instead of "one soul."  Another similar issue “monotheletism” (Christ had one will, not two) also caused a stir.

     Nestorianism was rooted in an effort to safeguard Jesus' humanity, with Nestorious asserting that Mary did NOT give birth to Deity or Divinity (theotokos), but to human flesh (theodochos - God receiving; and anthropotokos - man bearing).  He accepted the full humanity & Deity of Christ, but he held that the logos did not participate in the suffering.  The Logos dwelt in Jesus as in a temple.  Thus, Mary was the Christotokos - the Christ-bearer.  The Council of Chalcedon (451) affirmed the inseparable and indivisible union of two perfect and complete natures in one person in Christ.

     Councils - With the end of persecution, the Church was finally able to meet openly to deal with major issues and this brought on the era of the “Great Church Councils” (325-787 AD).  These Council meetings took place at five different levels: (1) Diocesan (district), (2) Provincial (the Arch-bishop/Metropolitan and bishops in his province), (3) Patriarchal (all the bishops of a Patriarchal district, i.e. Rome, Constantinople, etc.), (4) National (the whole Greek or Latin Church - half of the empire), and Ecumenical (the whole church).  A main purpose was for bishops to gather to investigate heresies.  The main exponents of a questionable view would be called to explain what they were saying.  Opponents could respond and debate the issue.  An official position would be reached if possible.  Some councils lasted days, weeks, or months as they debated, speculated, theorized, and finally formulated an "official" position on a doctrinal issue.  Prior to 325 A.D., any Christian could participate, or bishops functioned as representatives of their churches.  But after 325 A.D., Bishops become independent officials, rather than representatives and the notion of "apostolic succession" was growing.  During this era, the Councils were called by political rulers because of their interest in religious harmony as a pre-requisite for political harmony.  After 800 AD, Councils were generally called and controlled by Popes.

     Credalism - Creeds (from the Latin credo - I believe) slowly developed from the Baptismal formula (Mt.28:19; 1Cor.12:3; 1Tim.3:16), the early Roman Baptismal Creed (c.150; North, p.42), Old Roman Creed (c.200; North, p.43), the Nicene (c.325 with changes later), Apostles' (Spain, c.650 A.D.), and Athanasian (S. Gaul, c. 500 A.D.) creeds were listings for recitation of essential, orthodox beliefs to weed out the heretics.  In time, as heresies took different forms, it became necessary to expand and verbally "fine tune" the creeds to "strain out" more heretics.  Creeds were developed for the purpose of "dividing orthodox/heretic" and they naturally brought continuing dissension between more and more groups, even within the Church, as critical wordings and what some saw implied raised controversy.  Discipline developed to enforce these creedal guidelines for "orthodoxy."

     Origins of Roman Catholicism - Imperial support from Constantine and Theodosius II changed Christianity from persecuted minority to State-Religion within a century (4^th century AD).  The Church went from possibly 10% of the population to 90% within 80 years and this meant that Christianity had to build and organize for large numbers.  Accordingly, the Roman Empire’s organizational structure was the logical model and it was from this that the early congregational model was re-tooled into the hierarchical structure that came to characterize Roman Catholicism, with a Pontifex Maximus in Rome overseeing a college of Cardinals (the Senate), who oversaw large areas divided into Patriarchal Bishop/Arch-Bishop units (local provinces under Governors), each of which was sub-divided into areas overseen by a Bishop, with a number of individual priests and parish churches under their jurisdiction.  Roman Catholicism, literally, means “the Rome-Centered Universal Church.”  The Church developed around a number of centers (Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage), each with a Patriarchal Bishop (A Metropolitan) that over saw that area.  Prior to 750 AD, claims of supremacy by the Roman Bishop were rejected by these other major city bishops, but the rise of Islam (610-750 AD) removed Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage from this mix and left only the Metropolitan Bishop of Constantinople to oppose the growing claims of Rome.  Eventually, the Eastern (Greek) Church would officially break with Rome (1054 AD).  However, we can already see a number of things characteristic of Roman Catholicism developing: (1) the hierarchical Rome-centered organizational structure, (2) the Church becoming synonymous with the Clergy rather than all believers, (3) authority vested in a physical line of Bishops (Apostolic Succession) to churches started by an Apostle, Rome claiming Primacy, (4) the power of Clergy in Councils to define “Christian Doctrine” beyond what Scripture says, (5) Separating sacraments from holy living, etc.  The idea of Purgatory probably was adopted from earlier Etruscan beliefs, while doctrines about original sin, celibacy, Mary, Transubstantiation, seven sacraments, Papal Infallibility, etc. would develop gradually over the centuries in several stages” (1) it could be, (2) it should be, (3) it is and all the faithful must believe it. 

IV. The Medieval Church (800-1400 AD)

     Rome Acquires a Sword - On Christmas Day, 800 A.D. Pope Leo III crowned the Carolingian ruler Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as Emperor.  Leo needed protection and Charlemagne needed divine sanction.  Charlemagne had final authority over the Church and was the Chief Administrator, while the Pope was the Chief Bishop.  The crucial question that would arise after Charlemagne’s passing - which holds the ultimate authority, the Church or the secular ruler - would lead to the “Investiture Controversy” and a power struggle that the Papacy would win for awhile.

      Military Evangelism - With Church and State together, the mentality and method of evangelism shifted "officially" from spreading the Gospel to conquering "territory."  The Old Testament "Theocracy" model prevailed and "baptism" began to be more a symbol of culture and loyalty to the "Empire" than submission to the Gospel message and Christ.  A number of Scandinavians were "converted by battle."  In 878 A.D., Alfred the Great required a Danish invader he defeated to accept baptism as a price of peace.  In 882 A.D., a Viking chief was forced to accept baptism at the behest of a Carolingian ruler.  In 911 A.D., the first of the Vikings to rule as Duke in Normandy was baptized in return for the confirmation of his title by the king of France.  Some Norwegian raiders were baptized while in England.  Olaf Tryggnason became king of Norway in 995 A.D. and extended his authority by offering local chiefs the option of “baptism or battle.”  Saxons, like Charlomagne, came to identify submission to their rule with the acceptance of baptism.  Western and Central Europe were thus "converted" by force and by following the example of their civil ruler.  Thus, baptism became a secular sign of political affiliation and lost its Biblical meaning in the minds of many.

      The Crusades (1096-1272) Medieval Catholicism, especially in the west, did not function on the common level by intellectual means.  Since most people could not read and did not have Scripture, they depended on the Church/Clergy for everything.  The common man's religion could not be based in his own personal study and convictions, but by loyalty to the Church institution and by his own experiences and works.  One of the major "point-earners" to cut time from one's stay in Purgatory was a pilgrimage to a shrine or sacred spot.  The grandest pilgrimage zone was the Holy land, with the many sites of Biblical fame.  However, this area had been controlled by the Moslems since 750 A.D. and things got worse after the Seljuk Turks gained control of the area.  In 1055 they conquered Baghdad and proclaimed their leader the new Sultan.  In 1071, at the Battle of Manzikert, the Turks defeated a Byzantine army and got control of central Asia Minor.  In 1085 they controlled Antioch and the Byzantine emperors began requesting help from Rome.  Horror stories of pilgrims being insulted, injured, imprisoned, sold into slavery, etc. began reaching the ears of high churchmen in Europe in larger numbers and soon it was obvious that something would have to be done!  There were seven great Crusades between 1095-1270, along with a few other smaller expeditions.  There was even a “Children’s Crusade” that ended badly.  Those who participated ranged from kings, emperors, nobles and their high-stationed wives down to the dregs of society released from prison and promised anything in order to get them to go.  Those who died on the way were promised special indulgences and Eugenius (1146) even promised them eternal life.  French kings (1188-1270) granted those going to fight would be exempted from debt, taxes, and interest payments.  Results: (1) Catholicism was strengthened by the earliest crusades, but weakened as intellectuals in Europe began to question the universality of Catholicism, (2) The Military orders were created: the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights, (3) the Indulgence system expanded as remission of temporal punishment (purgatory) was granted for an increasing number of things, (4) the feudal structure in Europe was weakened, with the war-like nobility expending their energy and wealth on the crusades and Kings gathering strength, (5) awareness of geography and world trade increased, the "crusader states" ultimately fell and contributed to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.

Peak of Papal Power

     The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals - Fearful that the traditional rights of Bishops would not always be protected by royalty from the encroachments of the nobility, some dissident scholars in France laid the foundations for centering all ecclesiastical power in the papacy.  In the mid-ninth century, they composed what came to be known as the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, a collection of early papal and conciliar rulings, including their own forged creations, which they falsely asserted to have been assembled by Isadore of Seville (c. 560-636).  They selected Isidore as their pseudonym because he had been a well-known contemporary of Gregory the Great and a great scholar.  His Book of Sentences (brief statements of doctrine) had become the theological textbook of the western Church until the twelfth century, while his Origins or Etymologies had collected most of the learning of his age and was a principle source of knowledge on antiquity.  The forged documents depicted the Roman Bishops as claiming prerogatives from the beginning over the whole church and independent of secular control.  The Donation of Constantine professed to describe Constantine's conversion and his giving of the Imperial palace to the Roman Bishops as well as the entire city/area of Rome and full secular and religious authority over Western Europe.  It was two centuries before these documents were used to their fullest potential to bolster papal power, but they did not go unnoticed by those eager for power in the ninth century.  They appeared just prior to the election of Pope Nicholas I (858-867).

     Nicholas I (858-867 A.D.) insisted on the authority of the Roman Bishop over the entire Catholic Church and all civil government.  He was powerful enough to force the grandson of Charlemagne to take back his divorced wife.  He also used the Isidorian Decretals to bolster his claims and left the Papal office more powerful than it was when he accepted it.

     The Investiture Controversy (1049-1122 AD) dealt with who had final authority in a given area of feudal Europe and the focus of this issue was in determining who granted the “benefice” (a church area from which the clergy gets their income) - the Church Hierarchy or the local feudal Lord.  By employing the weapons of Excommunication (ejection from the Church/ salvation) and the Interdict (forbidding the clergy to offer/perform sacraments in an area), the Papacy gained the upper hand for several centuries (.

     Innocent III (1198-1216), aided by three uncles who were Cardinals, was rapidly promoted to a position of responsibility in the Curia (Roman Catholic governmental structure).  He went into monastic retirement for a while and wrote The Contempt of the World and Misery of the Mortal Estate, both of which were based in Augustine's view of human depravity.  When called to rule the Church, he did so as one convinced that the world needed a firm hand to keep it in line.^[7]  The peak of Papal power was reached during his reign.  He believed that the Pope was the divinely commissioned successor to Peter's apostolic office and was to hold supreme authority not only over the Church, but over the world.  Innocent III exalted the Papacy as: (1) Ruler of the World - He ordered that tithes to support the Church be given priority over all other taxes, (2) Judge of all political affairs - He was the acknowledged arbiter of the political destinies of Europe, from Constantinople to Europe, (3) Ruler of the Church - To the Papal title "Vicar of Christ" he added "Vicar of God," and (4) Ruler over Church Councils - Innocent called and dominated the Fourth Lateran Council (1215).

     The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) - also known as the Twelfth Ecumenical Council, this was the closing act of Innocent III's reign.  It sought to improve the education and morals of the clergy, improve marital/family life, required confession to the Parish priest at least once a year, required all Christians to take Communion at least at Easter each year, and forbade charging interest on loans.  The clergy were warned to abstain from intemperance, incontinence, forbidden the chase (hunting dogs/falcons), forbidden to attend the theatre/executions, dueling, or taverns.  New relics and holding more than one benefice were forbidden unless approved by the Pope.  Its doctrinal "contributions" included the definition and affirmation of the doctrine of transubstantiation as dogma, the end result of a difference of opinion between two French Monks several centuries earlier.

     The Inquisition - As Rome learned to use its military and political power to control Europe, Pope Innocent III initiated another variation - suppression of problems within Christendom - The Inquisition/Holy Office.  The first phase of the Inquisition was authorized at the 4^th Lateran Council in 1215 and was aimed at doctrinal heresies.  Aimed primarily at the Albigenses and Waldenses, it is likely that over 30,000 people were killed in the name of “orthodoxy.”  Soon to follow were two other phases: Against Witchcraft (beginning in 1430) and against insincere Jewish converts in Spain (beginning in 1478).  It is likely that over 30,000 died in the persecution of witchcraft, while perhaps less than 5,000 died in the Spanish phase.

Corruption and Papal Schism

     Along with the growing power and wealth of the Papacy, events occurred in the 10^th century that shocked and disgusted most of Europe (Formosus and the “Pornocracy”).  In 1054, the Eastern Church had officially separated itself from the Roman/Latin/Western Church.  Innocent III (1198-1216) claimed sovereignty over the entire Church and World.

     The Avignon Papacy (1309-1377) - King Philip IV of France (1285-1314) began to tax the clergy.  When threatened by Pope Boniface, Philip seized church property and forbade the exportation of gold from France to Rome.  Boniface relented, but a later incident brought a power struggle, with Boniface issuing the famous Bull Unum Sanctum.  Tired of his threats, Philip sent an army to Rome and seized Boniface, who died a few days later.  In 1305, a Frenchman friendly with Philip was elected Pope.  He was crowned in France and moved the Papal Court there because the climate in Rome was unhealthy and Philip was the Papacy's biggest concern.  For the next seventy years, the Papal Court was at Avignon on the Rhone River bordering France.  All seven of the Avignon Popes were Frenchmen.  The second, John XXII (1316-1334), was really into "fund raising."  Financial corruption increased – there was even a "cover charge" required to get in to see the Pope.  North summarizes it as follows,

Neither Clement nor John were bad men as such, but they were worldly, and they built up a style of papal court life that became a scandal across Europe. The papal court was wealthy, luxurious, and ostentatious. At a time when fur was expensive and restricted to only top church officials. Clement used up 1220 ermine pelts to trim various articles of clothing: 68 for a hood, 430 for a cape, 310 for a mantle, 30 for a hat. etc. John even had his pillow trimmed with fur. When members of John's family were married, the papacy paid the bill. When his great-niece married in 1324, the wedding party consumed 4,012 loaves of bread, 8-3/4 oxen, 55-1/4 sheep, 8 pigs, 4 boars, 200 capons, 690 chickens, 580 partridges, 270 rabbits, 40 plovers, 37 ducks, 50 pigeons, 4 cranes, 2 pheasants, 2 peacocks, 292 small birds, a large quantity of fish, 302 pounds of cheese, 3,000 eggs, 2,000 apples, pears and other fruits, all washed down by 11 barrels of wine.'  To finance all this expense, John became a master at making money for the papacy. In addition to bribes and corruption, he developed new sources of money within the church machinery. He demanded a tithe of all clerical income; he received the first year's income from a new officeholder, called the annates; he claimed the house and goods of any deceased bishop; there were love offerings from the people, and rents from papal land; he claimed the income of numerous offices when the office was vacant, before a new official could be elected or installed: in addition there was Peter's Pence - one penny per household - expected from England, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Bohemia, Poland, Dalmatia, Croatia. Aragon, Portugal, and the lands of the Teutonic Knights. With all this income flowing toward the papal court in Avignon. it is no wonder that there was corruption. And it is also no surprise that many people throughout Europe resented the high living enjoyed by the papal court.^[8]

While most of the rest of Europe was increasingly concerned about the wealth and corruption of the Papacy in general, Italians were also increasingly concerned about restoring the Papal throne to Rome.  The seventh Avignon pope, Gregory XI (1370-1378), committed himself to return to Rome and, although delayed by rebellion in the Papal lands, he did so in 1377.  His health was very delicate and he died in Rome in 1378.

     The Papal Schism (1377-1418) - Church Law dictated that new popes had to be elected wherever the last Pope had died.  Not having an Italian Pope in Rome for seventy years was deeply resented by the people of Rome and they filled the room below where the 10 French and 6 Italian Cardinals were meeting with firewood and other combustible materials and made it plain that they were going to "touch it off" if they didn't elect a Roman (or at least an Italian) Pope.  Wisely, they selected the Italian Archbishop of Bari as the next Pope, Urban VI (1378-1389).  All would have been fine if Urban VI had not let the office go to his head.  He immediately began accusing the French Cardinals of everything vile and corrupt.  Although they were guilty of many of his charges, he was obviously drunk with his new power and was vicious in his manner.  The French Cardinals began slipping out of town, reassembled in Anagni, declared the election of Urban VI to be invalid because of crowd pressure, elected a new French Pope (Clement VII, 1378-1394), and returned to Avignon.  Urban responded by appointing Italian replacements for each of the French Cardinals and all Europe began to choose sides!

     The schism lasted forty years and had the Church's lawyers working overtime.  All of Europe was under the censure of one of the Popes and half of Europe was receiving invalid sacraments, but no one knew for sure which half it was!  Whenever a Pope died, each side would replace him in the belief that not doing so would appear to legitimize the other Pope.  After 1390, every Cardinal in both camps claimed that, if elected, he would heal the schism by stepping down and supporting the other man.  But when they actually got to grip the reigns of power, for various reasons the promise was never kept.

     In 1409, the Cardinals convened a Council at Pisa and Cardinal Peter d'Ailly, Bishop of Cambrai, declared the sound doctrine that the unity of the church is centered in Christ, not the Roman Bishop.  On June 5, 1409 both Benedict XIII and Gregory XII were deposed (although neither stepped down).  A few weeks later, the Council elected Alexander V, so now there were three Popes!  Alexander only lived a year and was replaced by one of the worst Popes: Balthassar Cossa or Pope John XXIII.  The Council of Constance (1414-1417) rounded up and deposed all three Popes, elected Martin V, and the Great Schism was finally officially ended.  Before disbanding, the Council took steps to avoid this situation arising in the future by passing two important decrees.  Sacrosancta (1415) declared the Council to be the assembled church, with authority directly from Christ, which popes must obey.  Frequens (1417) required another meeting in five years, then two years later, and then every ten years.  Martin wanted power, so he convinced the Council to disband on April 22, 1418.  According to the requirements for another Council in five years, Martin reluctantly called one for Basle (1431), listened to (and ignored) a number of severe criticisms.  A decade later, the "radical Conciliar" remnant at Basle were excommunicated and, in April of 1441, the Florence Council affirmed the papal declaration Etsi non dubitemus, which stated the superiority of the Pope over the council, canceling the accomplishments of Constance and its decree Sacrosancta.

IV. The Reformation Fragmentation (1400-1650 AD)

     One lasting result of the Papal Schism was that all Europe had divided and even common men found their only recourse was to their own consciences.  Every Catholic was aware that some kind of reform was needed.  Before the end of the Schism, the English reformer John Wycliffe (1302-1384) had already had great influence that the Scriptures were a better source of truth and spiritual guidance than the Papacy - he translated the Bible into English.  Influenced by Wycliffe, Jan Huss (1371-1415) had a similar impact on the area around Prague.  Although guaranteed safe passage when summoned to the Council of Constance, Huss was disgracefully arrested and executed.  In the later 15^th century, an Italian priest named Giralamo Savonarola (1452-1498) also began emphasizing the Scriptures and resistance to the power-hungry Church hierarchy - he was also eventually seized and executed.

     The 16^th Century Reformation - The Reformation spirit exploded and succeeded in the 16^th century because armed and powerful nobles, fed-up with the amount of their national wealth flowing to Rome, finally joined efforts led by Zwingli, Luther, and Calvin.  One of Luther’s “Three Walls of Jericho” that required destruction was the continuing power that Popes wielded in their power to NOT convene needed Councils - the only force potentially powerful enough to reign them in.

     The Swiss Zwinglian “Reform” Movement - Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) taught that original sin is the defect derived from birth which is not one's fault and therefore involves no guilt.  Jesus paid for our sins, hence we don't need the Mass (re-sacrifice) or any human mediators.  "Faith" is confidence in God's Grace.  The Holy Spirit, who is directly operating on the heart, works it.  The presence of faith proves election.  Salvation depends only on God's eternal election.  This excludes free will and merit on man's part.  God not only foresaw the first sin, but caused it.  Zwingli, like Calvin, developed an extreme determinist view of election partly in response to Roman Catholicism.  Church and state are not to be separate.  Church discipline is to be carried out by governmental agencies (Romans 13:1-6).  Zwingli minimized the significance of the Word in conversion - the Holy Spirit works directly in the heart.  Accordingly, he put little significance on either baptism or the Lord's Supper, saying both are merely symbolic and convey nothing.  Justification is by "faith alone."  Zwingli was a major contributor to what has become modern “Evangelical” theology.

     The German Lutheran Movement - Martin Luther (1483-1546) embraced salvation by “faith alone” and thought that the letter of James should be excluded from the New Testament (James 2:24).  His doctrine of the Lord’s Supper was called “Consubstantiation.”  He re-emphasized the doctrine of the “priesthood of all Christians and opposed the clergy/laity distinction.  He also urged his followers to not form a group and call themselves after Luther, and urged baptism by immersion because of the meaning of Biblical words, but none of these ideas were embraced by his “followers.”  Lutheranism spread throughout Germany and Scandanavia.

     The Swiss Calvinist Movement - John Calvin (1509-1564) was the lone major reformer to not have been an ordained Catholic priest, but his major theological premises had much to do with his activities, the systematic theology he produced, and the doctrines of Calvinism which were later defined at Dort.  John Calvin reacted to Papal claims of “absolute authority” over the world and church by asserting that it is God who holds “Total Sovereignty” over the universe - God causes everything!  Upon this foundational assumption, Calvin reasoned that man, as originally created, was good and capable of obeying God's will.  But, after the Fall, man became absolutely incapable of goodness (totally depraved).  Man is unable to initiate or contribute anything to his salvation, for God “does it all” and the Holy Spirit works when/how/ where He will, creating repentance and faith in those already Divinely-chosen to be saved (unconditional election).  Since God has already determined who will/will not be saved, Christ died only for those selected for salvation (limited atonement).  As God sovereignly controls who will be saved, His offer cannot be rejected (grace is irresistible).  Those selected for salvation will not “fall away” (perseverance of the saints/once saved, always saved).  Civil government has the divinely-appointed task of fostering the church, protecting it from false doctrine, and punishing offenders whose crimes require punishment greater than excommunication.  Calvinism was very influential in the Netherlands (Dutch Reformed), Scotland (Church of Scotland/Presbyterian), and the English Puritans.

     The Anabaptist Movement - Menno Simons (1496-1561) a Catholic priest who questioned the validity of infant baptism and Church & State partnership, his influence was later expressed through the Mennonites, Jacob Amman’s Amish, Jakob Hutter’s Hutterites, and through the several “Baptist” groups that started in Europe - some of which embraced Calvinistic theology.

     The Catholic Counter-Reformation - In response to the growing reform movements in Switzerland and Germany, the Catholic Church responded with the Council of Trent (1545-1563), where some doctrinal definitions were established that have characterized Roman Catholicism down to the present time.  Scripture and tradition were declared equally valid sources of religious truth and the church, with Pope and bishops alone allowed to interpret Scripture.  The Jewish Apocrypha was added to the Canon of Scripture.  The 4^th century Latin translation of Jerome, the Vulgate, was made the official, authoritative text of Scripture.  IT was asserted that Christ instituted 7 sacraments and all were necessary to salvation (either marriage or ordination/celibacy was expected).  "Sacraments" were a physical channel through which the Church mediated God's grace as though it was something that had to be "officially" parceled out.  As the Church had assumed "control" over people from cradle to grave and was the "dispenser" of Grace, it needed official ceremonies by which this could be understood.  Roman Catholicism officially settled on seven sacraments at the Council of Trent: baptism, confirmation, marriage,^[9] penance,^[10] eucharist, extreme unction,^[11] and holy orders.^[12]  The doctrine of Transubstantiation was confirmed.  The Lutheran, Calvinist, and Zwinglian doctrines of the Lord's Supper were condemned.  In 1559, Pope Paul IV produced the first "Index of Forbidden Books" (required that no book be published which has not been examined and approved by designated officials of the Roman Catholic Church - in response to the Protestant use of printing presses).

V. The Rise of Secularism (1650-1963)

     The French Enlightenment (1689-1789) - Having rejected the heavily “political” agenda of the Roman Catholic Church and its superstitious theology (such as Transubstantiation), a growing number of French intellectuals embraced and advocated Greek materialism and naturalism.  Their skepticism was leveled mostly at Roman Catholicism in France, but also took in everything associated with “Christianity” and it is from this foundation that “evolutionary progress” geology, biology, history, Higher-Critical and Liberal Theology, and Marxist-Leninist Socialism arose in Western civilization.

     Roman Catholic Response - The Roman Church responded to French secularism by concentrating more authority in the hands of the Papacy.  Several intellectuals and the Ultra-Montanism movement emphasized the Papacy as the protector and preserver of European values.  Accordingly, the Papacy gained power within Catholicism during the years 1846-1917 through Pius IX, Leo XIII, and Pius X.  Pius IX (1846-1878) announced the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary (1854 - without the concurrence of a Council or the support of Scripture or tradition) as being revealed by God and to be believed by all the faithful.  In 1864 the "Syllabus of Errors" came out attacking such ideas as "democracy" and "separation of Church and State."  In 1870 the "Vatican Council" met to approve Pius IX’s agenda, including the doctrine of "Papal infallibility" concerning ex cathedra (from the chair) matters of faith and morals.

     In America, significant Catholic growth occurred (from 600,000 to 3.5 million) between 1830-1860 due to Irish immigration via better ocean transit and the potato rot famine 1845-46.  "Trusteeism" involved the men of a Catholic Church trying to claim the right to appoint and dismiss pastors and administer the property, but the Bishops quickly "nipped that in the bud.  Roman Catholicism instituted an extensive system of parish schools (thru High School). 

     Outside of Catholicism, between 1750-1900, the secularism of the French Enlightenment was countered by the “Great Awakening” amongst British and American groups through the Wesleys and the Revivalism of George Whitefield and Charles Finney.  Wesleyan Methodist Churches increased on the American Frontier because of Circuit Rider ministers and their “2^nd Work of Grace” doctrine of the Holy Spirit was later adopted by the Pentecostal movement and re-labeled “Baptism of the Holy Spirit.”  Baptist Churches spread through the efforts of farmer-preachers, often with a Calvinistic theology.  Some disenchanted Presbyterian ministers moved toward an emphasis on the New Testament information concerning the New Covenant s in the Campbell/Stone/Scott Restoration Movement.  Other groups started from individuals with their own personal theological/philosophical agenda, such as Joseph Smith’s “Mormons,” Charles T. Russell’s “Jehovah’s Witnesses,” and a number of Communal Groups.  The American Civil War (1860-1865) also had an impact on life in America.

VI. The Post-Modern Era (1963-Present)

     In 1905, the French Parliament passed an act completely separating church and state, which was eventually matched in 1962-3 as the U.S. Supreme Court passed rulings that separated “Church and State” and outlawed Bible Reading and Prayer in Public Schools.  Events such as these, in various Western nations, mark the end of Christendom - the undoing of Constantine’s experiment in combining Christianity with Western culture/civilization/political power.  Along with the assaults of Enlightenment skepticism responding to Church corruption and denominational strife, the general image of Christianity has also been given a black eye by the immorality of TV preachers (like Jim Bakker and Jimmy Swaggart) and a number of Roman Catholic priests.  Along with the appearance of numerous cults, old occultic practices (Deuteronomy 18:9-11) have returned with openly-professed witchcraft and New Age beliefs, as well as beliefs similar to the Gnostics and Neo-Platonists being revived through such nonsense as the DaVinci Code, the Jesus Papers, the Judas Gospel, etc.  The spiritual war that Paul spoke of (2Corinthians 10:3-5) rages on.

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Charles E. McCoy

May 4, 2006