V. Judaism

     When we speak of "Judaism," we must distinguish two different concepts.  First of all, there is what we might call Biblical Judaism, which is the Divinely-revealed and delivered religion of Israel given to them at Mt. Sinai and written down in the books of Moses.  Secondly, there is Cultural Judaism, which is the religion that developed out of Biblical Judaism after 400 B.C., with many cultural and traditional elements (Mark 7:1-13) added after Ezra's time coming to the forefront.

     Biblical Judaism is the Covenant system that God offered to the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob at Mt. Sinai around 1445 B.C. - described in the Law of Moses (Exodus - Deuteronomy).  The Biblical story begins with God's promise that a savior would come from Adam and Eve's lineage through Seth, Noah, Shem, and Abraham (Gen. 3:15; 4:25 – 5:32; 11:10-26).  Thus, God's promise to Abraham that his descendants would become a nation in Canaan and that one of them will bless all nations (Gen. 12:1-3).  This promise was further delineated through Abraham's son, Isaac (Gen. 26:1-4) and grandson, Jacob (Gen. 28:10-14).  Jacob's name was changed to "Israel" (Gen. 32:28 &35:10) and the Messiah's lineage was further specified as coming through Jacob's son Judah (Gen. 49:10).  Famine drove the clan of Jacob/Israel to Egypt as Joseph was placed in a position to welcome the rest of them around 1876 B.C. (Gen. 37-50).  After changed conditions in Egypt and a period of slavery, around 1446 B.C. Moses arose and God used him to lead a large number of Israelite slaves out of Egypt and they were given a national covenant at Mt. Sinai (Exodus 19:1-5; 20) and, after 40 years in the wilderness, they entered and conquered Canaan under Joshua.  In Romans 9:1-5, Paul summarized a number of elements/advantages that identified Biblical Judaism,

            1) The oracles of God, Scripture (Romans 3:1-2)

            2) Tabernacle/Sacrifices/Aaronic Priesthood

            3) The Feasts (Exodus 23:14-17; Deuteronomy 16:1-16)

            4) Circumcision (Genesis 17; Exodus 12:48; Leviticus 12:3)

            5) Adoption as sons (Romans 8:15-16; 9:4; Galatians 4:4-5)

            6) The "Glory" (Shekinah) (Exodus 40:34-38; 1Kings 8:10-11)

            7) The Covenants (Deuteronomy 5:2-3; Romans 9:4)

            8) The Promises ‑ earthly & spiritual

            9) The Fathers (Patriarchs) ‑ Abraham, Isaac, Jacob

            10) The physical lineage of Messiah (John 4:22; Romans 9:5)

The atonement system that was tied to the Mosaic Law involved several key elements - animal/blood sacrifice, Aaronic High Priest, and the Ark of the Covenant/Mercy Seat (Lev. 16).  The entire Mosaic Covenant/Law was NOT an end in itself, but a temporary addition to the earlier promise to Abraham concerning the Messianic seed that was to come (Read Galatians 3).  Jesus (John 5:39-47) and Paul (Romans 9:30 – 10:4) both identified Israel's major wrong-turn – they focused on keeping the Mosaic Law rather than the Messiah that the Law was designed to point to and prepare Israel for (Galatians 3:19,24-25; 2Tim. 3:15)!

     The Glory Departed - As predicted by Moses (Deuteronomy 31:14-30), the Jewish people were not faithful to that covenant and the ultimate curse (Deuteronomy 28:47-42) was carried out when the Assyrians dismantled the northern Israelite kingdom (ca. 722 B.C.) and, a century later, the Babylonian empire under Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Solomon’s Temple and the city of Jerusalem (586 B.C.) and led the people of Judah away into 70 years of exile.  Just before the Babylonians demolished Jerusalem and its Temple, the prophet Ezekiel saw a vision in which the Glory departed from the midst of Israel (Ezekiel 10-11).  When that exile period was ended, Zerubbabel led about 42,000 Israelites back to Judah and the 2^nd Temple was built (ca. 536-516 B.C.), however something was very different from this point on.  First of all, the cloud of God’s Glory did not re-appear in the 2^nd Temple, thus it does not appear that God’s presence dwelt in the midst of Israel as it had before.  Second, the Atonement system was centered around the Ark of the Covenant and it was gone, as Jeremiah had predicted (Jeremiah 3:16).  Thus, after 586 B.C. crucial elements of the Divinely-given Mosaic system were missing.  Ezra tried to encourage a spiritual renewal in the later half of the 5^th century B.C., but it appears that it met with limited success.  After the Prophet Malachi (ca. 430-400 B.C.), Israel received no new information from God until the appearance of John the Baptizer and Jesus - this 400 year period between Malachi and the births of John and Jesus is called the “Intertestamental Era.”

The Intertestamental Era (400-4 B.C.)

     The first portion of this era was quite peaceful as the Jews lived under Persian rule from 536-336 B.C.  However, that changed with the coming of the Greeks.  Alexander the Great conquered all of the territory from Macedonia to Egypt (336-323 B.C.), to the border of India and spread Greek culture in his wake.  Thus, a common language (Greek) was in place for a couple of centuries before Jesus appeared.  Alexander the Great’s empire was divided amongst four of his generals, with Ptolemy and his descendants ruling Egypt until 30 B.C. and Seleucid’s descendants ruling Syria until after 140 B.C.  It was during this era that the Septuagint (Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament) was made, Apocryphal/apocalyptic writings appeared, Pharisees and a good deal of traditionalism arose, along with a spirit of nationalism.  The Syrian segment of Alexander’s empire tried to control Palestine (politically and culturally) and this became harsh enough that it brought on the Maccabean Revolt (170-142 B.C.), which left the Jewish family of Hasmonai in control of the Priesthood and the nation until the Romans were invited in to end a serious squabble between two Hasmonean brothers struggling for power - from 63 B.C. onward, Rome was in control of Judea.

     Jewish Denominations - Forced Hellenization efforts by Antiochus IV placed great pressure upon the conservative Jews and from the successful Maccabean revolt came the “Hasadim” and the roots of the Pharisees.  The Pharisees continued to believe in angels and the resurrection of the dead, they numbered about 6,000 in Jesus time, and their power was centered in the Synagogues.  The Sadducees were the aristocratic families associated with the Aaronic priesthood and (probably from Greek influences) these had “liberalized” their theology to no longer believe in angelic beings or resurrection from the dead (Matthew 22:23; Acts 23:8).  A rivalry for influence among the people existed between the Pharisees who controlled the synagogues and the Sadducees, whose power was tied to the Temple.  There were also Herodians that arose in the belief that supporting Herod and his connection to Rome was the best course of action and Zealots that were ready for war to drive the Romans out.  A fifth group had broken away from the Jerusalem Temple/Priesthood worship in the belief that the true Aaronic priesthood had left for Egypt (for political reasons) around 100 B.C. and what was going on in Jerusalem was corrupted and useless.  These were the people who made up the Qumran community (the Essenes/Damascus Group?) near the Dead Sea and it was their community and Bible scrolls that were sealed in clay pots, hidden in a series of hard to reach caves, found in the later 1940’s, and labeled the “Dead Sea Scrolls”.

Cultural Judaism (4 B.C. - the Present)

     Torah (lit. "teaching") is often used for the Pentateuch (Genesis ‑ Deuteronomy).  However, by Jesus’ time, a large body of extra-canonical literature had accumulated within the context of Judaism - the Apocrypha and a large number of pseudepigraphic (false-ascribed) documents.  In addition to this, there was a large body of unwritten oral traditions that had accumulated and this is what was eventually collected and written to form the Talmud.

     Midrash was a running commentary on the words of the Scripture.  When a particular custom, practice or precept was to be expounded on, it was brought into relation with a text or passage of Scripture and then an interpretation was expounded.  "Midrash" comes from the Hebrew term darash (to interpret).  The "fence around the Torah" (Pirke Aboth 1:1) was slowly constructed to keep Israel from breaking the Mosaic Law by stopping people short at the "cautionary rules" which the Rabbis and Sopherim (Scribes) established.  With time, the "traditions of the elders" (Matthew 15:1-2; Mark 7:1-5) came to be as authoritative, in practice, as the Mosaic Law and tremendously complex and burdensome system of ritual observances (Matthew 23:1-4).  Midrash was divided into two sections: Halakah (halak, to walk) were the regulations concerning matters of civil and religious law.  It was an exegesis of Biblical laws out of which authoritative regulations could be formed for the life of the people.  Haggadah[1] focuses on the exodus and Passover story, but was made up of anything which was not a point of law, such as folk-lore, legends, and odds and ends.  After the fall of the temple in 70 A.D., Midrash came to be the primary concern of the Rabbis and eventually came into written form in the Talmud ("learning").  The Talmud was the final compilation of Mishnah (the accepted body of traditional law) and Gemara (completion).

     Talmud (lit. "to teach" or "to instruct") usually refers to the written volumes of Jewish oral tradition that developed for centuries and was written down in the 3rd - 8th centuries A.D.  Mishnah was oral tradition.  Gemara was a collection of discussions on the Mishnah.  Mishnah and Gemara form the bulk of the Talmud, of which two versions were produced.  The "Palestinian" Talmud is a record of discussions in Rabbinic Schools of Palestine.  The "Babylonian" Talmud, the larger and more prestigious of the two, is a record of discussions by Jewish authorities in Babylon.  Only recently have indexes and concordances begun to be used.  Authoritative minority opinions are included, so one must know who is talking and how they were received.  Synagogue (lit. "gather together") refers to the regular gathering of Jews for study and prayer.  "Synagogue" has come to refer to the special building in the same way that "church" has come to mean the building where Christian's meet.  Bar Mitzvah (lit. "son of the commandment") is the ceremony which Jewish boys go through at about the age of 12-13 by which they become personally responsible for keeping the Law.  Bat Mitzvah (lit. "daughter of the commandment") is the counterpart for girls.  Tephillim (or phylacteries) are the little leather boxes which Jews tie on their foreheads (taking literally Deuteronomy 6:6-8) and which contain tiny versions of Exodus 13:1-16 and Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21.  The Mezusah is a tiny scroll (Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21) in a wooden or metal container which Jews place on the upper right of their front door.  The Yarmelkah/Kippah is the skull cap which a Jewish man wears when praying.  Kosher refers to food which is fit or "clean" for Jewish consumption.  Meats which are permitted (Leviticus 11 & Deuteronomy 14) must be slaughtered by a trained and ordained shochet.  The Sabbath is the Jewish day of rest, from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday.

     From the New Testament, we get a picture of Jewish cultural life.  We have already noted the major factions within Judaism and the New Testament identifies the doctrinal friction that existed between the Pharisees and Sadducees (Acts 23:6-10), the traditionalism that sometimes negated Scriptural authority (Mark 7:1-13), the problem of Pharisaic externalism (Matthew 23:1-30), greed (Luke 16:14), and arrogance (Luke 15:1-2; 18:9-14).  These descriptions are quite believable because most of the same characteristics can be found in people from other religious systems as well.

     The Roman Era - After being invited in to end a power-struggle between Hasmonean brothers, Roman forces stayed on.  The Roman era (63 B.C. ‑ 135 A.D.) was a time of increasing Messianic fever (see: Acts 5:36-37; 8:9-11; 21:38).  The Idumaean (Edomite) family of "Herod the Great" ruled Palestine for Rome (40 B.C. – 70 A.D.), and it was during Herod’s reign that Jesus was born.  During His ministry, Jesus dealt with Herod’s sons.  Although being at the center of a very popular Jewish movement, Jesus was handed over to the Roman government because the Sanhedrin was afraid that it would lose its place in the Roman power structure (John 11:47-57).  As Christianity spread from Jerusalem outward into Judea, Samaria, and the Mediterranean world, Judaism was being pressured by increasingly harsh (or inept?) Roman governors in Palestine until a revolt broke out in 66 A.D. and three Roman legions eventually converged on Jerusalem and again destroyed Jerusalem and the temple (66-70 A.D.).

     Rabbi Johanon ben Zakkai left Jerusalem prior to 70 A.D. and, with Roman permission, established a Pharisaic school at Jamnia and, because of this, it was primarily Pharisaic Judaism that continued after 70 A.D.  At Jamnia (ca. 90 A.D.) the Jewish canon of "Scripture" was re-affirmed at 39 books and "Rabbi" (revered teacher) became an official title.  Attempts to build a new Roman city on Jerusalem's rubble sparked a new revolt under Simon bar Cocheba who claimed to be Messiah and was supported by the old Rabbi, Akiba (132 A.D.).  Three years later, 580,000 Jews were dead and 985 Palestinian towns were destroyed.  From then on, Jews died with Christians in Roman arenas as criminals until toleration laws were signed around 313 A.D.

     313-634 A.D./ Constantine's conversion to Christianity brought new social problems for Jews.  Byzantine Christians oppressed Jews.  The Palestinian and Babylonian Talmuds were completed.  With roots into the previous era and the initial Jewish attempt to explain away the Christian view of Jesus (Matthew 28:11-15), the general Jewish view of Jesus developed that he was not the Messiah, but a rabbinical student who turned aside to occult activities and was arrested for misleading Israel - no one came forward to speak a good word for him during a 40 day period, so he was executed by stoning and then hung.  While perhaps nothing more than a popular rumor in the Medieval Jewish community, an anti-Christian work by the pagan philosopher Celsus (ca. AD 178), claimed that Mary “was pregnant by a Roman soldier named Panthera and was driven away by her husband as an adulterer.” 

     634-1348 A.D./ Byzantine Christians were driven out of Palestine by Moslems, while Jews fared pretty well under tolerant Moslems as "people of the Book".  After 900 A.D. Europe began to turn against the Jews, especially in France.  European Rabbis produced standard commentaries.  Moses ben Maimon (1135-1204 A.D.) a Spanish Rabbi laid the foundations for modern Jewish thinking.  In the 1200's Jews in Europe were blamed for poisoning wells and causing the Black death - massacres followed.

     1348-1700 A.D./ Jews became money-lenders (often as the only means of income legally open to them).  The Spanish Inquisition (peak 1391) sought out Jewish "converts" to Catholicism who were not sincere (done to escape limitations on Jewish people in normal society and business).  Most Jews were in Poland, Lithuania, or the lands ruled by the Ottoman Turks.  The Protestant Reformation tended to favor Jews.  In the late 1600's, a new round of Messianic movements arose.

     1700 to Present/ Jewish business skills and a tolerant Europe allowed Jews to settle and prosper in England and Germany.  In the 1880's, Germany and France saw a new surge of anti-Semitism.  Many came to America (where about one-half of the world's Jews live).  Pseudo-biology and the myth about the "soul of a people" led to the Nazi doctrine of "Aryan superiority" and "scape-goating" of, some suggest, 6-7 million Jews (1939-1944 A.D.).  Theodore Herzl (1860-1904 A.D. - right) led the modern "Zionist movement" to politically recreate a "national homeland" for Jews in the Middle East.  With the help of Great Britain, the United States, and the United Nations, a new "national state of Israel" was created in Palestine in 1948, much to the continuing chagrin of the local Arab inhabitants.

Branches of Modern, "Cultural" Judaism

     What is here called "modern Judaism" is really a number of "branches" of Judaism with highly divergent beliefs and values.

     Orthodox - The "orthodox" branch of Judaism considers itself the only "true" Judaism.  It seeks to preserve traditional Judaism against the "reform" movement.  It faithfully adheres to Torah, strict Sabbath observance, dietary laws, and prayer three times a day.  It seeks adjustment to the modern world without conflicting with the Torah.  Most Orthodox Jews are Zionists, supporting the state of Israel.  Many hope for a personal Messiah that will redeem Israel.  The latest expression of the orthodox messianic hope was tied to Rabbi Menachem Schneerson (left), who died June 12, 1994 at the age of 92.  His followers were so hopeful that this was the messiah that they expected God to bring him back to life.^[2]  The Hasidim are the "ultra-orthodox" Jews, who seek isolation from the Gentile world by means of distinctive dress (black coats & ear locks) and joyful worship.  The founder was a European named Israel Baal Shem Tov (1700-1760).

     Reform - Beginning in 19th century Germany, Abraham Geiger (1810-74) was influential in trying to go along with the trend of scientific inquiry and critical evaluation.  Geiger taught that modern man could no longer accept the revelation of the Torah as factual or binding.  In America, Isaac Wise founded the first Reform congregation.  Hebrew Union College was established in 1875.  Reason and experience establish the relevance or truth of a proposition.  In the 1970's, Hebrew Union College began ordaining women Rabbis.  Reform Judaism tends to be pretty "liberal."

     Conservative - The "Conservative" movement arose in the late 1800's in reaction to radical Reform Judaism, seeking to emphasize the positive historical elements of Jewish tradition.  Solomon Schecter (1850-1915) was influential in America as the president of the newly-formed "Jewish Theological Seminary."  Schecter was committed to tradition, but willing to "adjust" it where necessary.  He was concerned with the preservation of the Jewish people as the way to maintain both tradition and yet change with the culture.  Conservative Judaism has strongly supported the Zionist movement.

     Reconstruction - Founded by Mordecai Kaplan (b.1881), this movement stresses Judaism as an evolving religious civilization.  Equal stress is placed on religion, ethics, and culture.

     Kabbalism - This is the Jewish "mystical" movement.  It is very mystical, stressing that numbers/letters have inherent creative power, thus their study of the Torah is aimed at uncovering the hidden, secret meanings in numbers and letters.  There is also a belief in direct "visions."  Their important writing, the Zohar, (Sefer ha-Zohar or "Book of Splendor") was written between 1280 and 1286 by the Spanish Kabbalist Moses de Leon (1250-1305) and is the “Talmud of mysticism” with some astrology thrown in.  The following are excerpts on the nature of Kabbalah,

The Kabbalah at its best is a system of esoteric philosophy, psychology and cosmology that allows any aspect of existence to be assimilated and related to any other on many levels, both rational and trans-rational. It may be used profitably by anyone, regardless of creed; and, for those who wish it, it is a key to the control of subtle forces and the attainment of true mystical union.  . . . The pre-eminent form of Jewish mysticism, sometimes referred to as Classical Kabbalah, began in Provence, France, in the thirteenth century, but flourished most readily in mediaeval Spain. It contains elements of both Gnosticism and Neo-platonism, and is more concerned with the nature and structure of all creation from the divine to the material worlds, than with ecstatic experience.^[3]

The Kabbalah Centre, with branches worldwide, has attracted many non-Jews, including celebrities such as Madonna, Demi Moore, Ashton Kutcher, Mick Jagger and Britney Spears.

Festivals of Judaism

     There were three major feasts commanded for Judaism by God (Deuteronomy 16).  Pesach (Passover/Unleavened Bread) is the feast which commemorates the deliverance from Egypt (Exodus 12).  Shavnot (Pentecost/Weeks) commemorates the "first fruits" of the harvest, the giving of the Law, and the failure of Bar Cocheba's revolt (132-135 A.D.).  Sukkoth is the feast of Tabernacles/Booths and it comes five days after Yom Kippur.  The other major festival of Divine origin was the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16 - Yom Kippur), but with no Priesthood, sacrifice, or Ark of the Covenant, the sacrifice required in Leviticus 16 cannot be offered.  So, Jews seek atonement through repentance and 24 hours of fasting in white robes end with the person feeling spiritually "re-born."

     There are a number of other "feasts" that were added as Judaism developed.  Rosh Hashanah celebrates the New Year.  Simchat Torah means "Rejoicing of the Law" and the yearly reading of the Pentateuch is completed with this feast.  Scrolls are joyfully carried around the synagogue.  Hanukkah is the feast of Lights and this commemorates the victory over the Syrians and the re-dedication of the Temple in 164 B.C.  Purim (Lots) commemorates the deliverance of Jews in Persia from the plot to kill them and Haman's "lots" (cf. Esther 3:7). Tishbah B'av (a day of mourning) commemorates the 70 A.D. destruction of the Temple, as well as the earlier destruction in 586 B.C.

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Charles E. McCoy

5/1/06