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IV. Asian Religions Brahmanism Brahmanism (worship of the One, the World Soul) gradually developed as a system of philosophy, aimed at development of the immortal soul. It makes no claims of being "revealed" by God to mankind, since it is pantheistic. It is a synthesis of many ideas and philosophies. This is the system of thought belief that most people are referring to when they speak of “Hinduism” - although “Hindu” refers to Indian people, like “American” refers to inhabitants of North America. Hinduism is the European name for the Sanatama Dharma, ‘the Eternal Law.’ The name hindu comes from the Sanskrit word sindhu, meaning ‘river.’ In time the land beyond the river became known as the Hind, and the people who lived there known as Hindus. The Scriptures of Brahmanism - Written in early Sanskrit, the material comes from ancient seers of "pure heart" who discerned truth as they contemplated the world. The Vedas (c. 1400 B.C.) are four collections of hymns, prayers, rituals, and magical formulas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva). Each section of the Vedas contains three parts: Mantras (hymns of praise to the gods), Brahmans (prose guide book for sacrificial rites), and Upanishads (c. 1000-500 B.C.) containing speculation and philosophy. After the Vedas, there are codes of law for governing Hindu society (Manu ‑ best known), two epics of mythical national heroes (Mahabharata and Ramayana), and the Puranas (myths, legends to evoke devotion). The most influential Indian religious text is the Bhagavadgita, an epic that turns into a philosophical discussion.[1] Basic Concepts of Brahmanism - This system is “monistic” - assumes that there is only one element to reality (spirit, thus all physical and individual things are “illusions”).
In Brahmanism, the universe was not "created" in one space-time event, but rather is progressing through an eternal cycle of destruction and re-creation. In effect, this view is evolutionary in nature. As a pantheistic (all is God) system, "God" is essentially the creation. Karma ‑ This is a sort of invisible chain that binds one's actions together with their consequences. Although "karma/charma" is sometimes cited as a parallel for pre-determined "fate," the ultimate use of karma is found in its effect on one's reincarnation in the next life - evil deeds produce "heavy" karma and drag one down to a lower level in the next life, while good deeds are "light" karma and will raise one into a better level of life the next time around. The only point of parallel in Biblical thinking is Galatians 6:7, where it is emphasized that a person's actions will have consequences.
Brahmanists may travel any one of three paths toward Nirvana. The first path is that of Karma marga ‑ selfless or disinterested action; action without attachment to consequences. The second path is Bhakti marga ‑ exclusive devotion to God. This may involve external aids like ritualistic worship or direct communion with God. Enlightenment through chanting or devotion for it's own sake are characteristic. The third path is Jnana marga ‑ higher knowledge or spiritual insight. This is the path of the intellectual few. Yoga - a fundamental method for achieving Hindu spirituality. A physiological and psychological technique by which all bodily and psychic energy is controlled to achieve a state of "spiritual perfection." The system of yoga centers on stopping the mind as the stream of conscious reflection. When the mind is emptied, the soul is free from the natural world. Transcendental Meditation is a "short-cut" technique of yoga, which involves concentrating on a "mantra" or word for a few minutes each day. Caste - the Vedas speak of an ancient division of Indian society by colors. This later developed into a division based on occupation, which was passed on from generation to generation. From highest to lowest, these castes were the Brahmins (priests, scholars), Kshatriyas (rulers, soldiers), Vaishyas (merchants, farmers), and Sudras (peasants, servants). Below these four castes are the "untouchables" who clean latrines, handle carcasses, and are scavengers. Many reformers have tried to abolish the "untouchable" classification, but without success. The four castes have evolved into over 3,000 sub-castes. Caste is inherited at birth and limits a Hindu's choice of occupation, spouse, dress, food, religious habits, and freedom to move about. Four stages of life - As a student, the young initiate receives the "sacred thread". He then begins a course of study and service in an "ashram" (religious community) under the guidance of a "guru." Next, he becomes a married householder and servant to the community. Third, he becomes detached from family and material objects. Finally, there is a period of preparation for what lies in the next life, separation from the world. Festivals and religious customs - There is a wide difference in these. There are some annual festivals connected with the worship of particular gods and goddesses: Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and beauty), Sarasvati (goddess of learning), Ganesa (god of wisdom and success), and Kali/Durga (mother goddess). Other festivals celebrate mythical events in the lives of divine "incarnations," domestic life of the family, and seasons. There are also many pilgrimages to numerous Holy cities, rivers, and mountains. Missionary Movements While not a "missionary" system, there have been several recent attempts to propagate Hinduism outside of India.
Eastern religion, especially Brahmanism, is "experience" oriented and openly rejects the “rational” approach (by which the illogic or inconsistency of the system might be recognized). Hare Krishna devotees dance and chant for the expressed purpose of shutting off/emptying the rational mind and the “illusion” of separate personal existence. The dependence on repetitious chanting and concentration on "mantras" is evidence that a personal experience (interpreted as "glimpses" of reality) is the goal and such repetition does cause self-induced "experiences" as one's perception becomes distorted and the mind loses it's rationality. Experiences are always interpreted according to one's prior programming. Although the Eastern concept of "god" differs radically from Western concepts, the "experience-approach" has found many willing ears in the Post-modern West. Disenchanted youth want to try something different, while other seekers of "God" are trying to "experience" God as a Brahmanist seeks to experience "one-ness with creation." "Experiencing" God by emotion, rather than intellect is easier than logically evaluating the claims of a God who's space-time actions are put forth as proof of His existence, plan and purpose. Jainism The founder of Jainism was Vardhamana (or Mahavira "the Great Hero"). His lifetime is uncertain, but can safely be placed between 540-468 B.C. He was born to the warrior class, but at the age of 28 he renounced his family life to become a beggar and ascetic, seeking liberation form the dreary cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. He wandered for twelve years, eleven of them in the nude. In the thirteenth year, at the end of a long fast, he claimed to have "achieved liberation" and full enlightenment. He thus became a "conqueror" (jina) and became (allegedly) free from the forces of karma. He was proclaimed a "Tirthankara" (ford-maker or pathmaker) and became the 24th guide for those wishing to cross the "river of transmigration." After 30 years of teaching and organizing his order, Mahavira died of voluntary self-starvation and it is asserted that he then entered "nirvana," the final rest. Later, it was claimed that he had come from heaven with all knowledge and without sin. Two sects developed when conflict arose in the third century B.C. and became solidified in the first century A.D. The two main issues were disagreement over total nudity "dress code" and the canon of scripture. Southern and northern groups come about as a result of famine. Later, the southern group finds the northern group has abandoned some of Mahavira's teachings and adopted white robes. The "main concern" of Jainism is liberation from the "wheel of reincarnation," much like Buddhism. Jainism is officially (and originally) atheistic, as Mahavira was strongly opposed to any concept of "world soul" or supreme being as creator and sustainer of life. While rejecting these ideas himself, Mahavira was deified after his death and became an object of worship. Hindu deities were also added. Jainism is very pessimistic, viewing the world as a place of misery and sorrow. Jainism grades "soul" into five different levels and classifies living things accordingly: (1) Touch ‑ elements, earth, water, air, fire, and vegetables, (2) Touch & Taste ‑ worms and shell creatures, (3) Touch, Taste, & Smell ‑ ants, bugs and moths, (4) Touch, Taste, Smell, & Sight ‑ wasps, locusts, and butterflies, and (5) Touch, Taste, Smell, Sight & Hearing ‑ higher animals, humans, and spiritual beings. The Three Jewels - The way of salvation begins with "three jewels" and graduates through a series of steps: (1) Right knowledge ‑ through knowing the Jain creed, (2) Right Faith ‑ through believing the Jain creed, and (3) Right Conduct ‑ following the Jain creed. The most important part of conduct is ahimsa or non-violence to all living things in that it is believed that injury to other creatures has serious karmic effects. It is very much "works" oriented. Full salvation is only available to laymen if they will take the vow of old age as their end approaches, vowing to die of self-starvation. Jainism developed karma into a complex system, holding that there are four sources of karma, eight kinds of karma, three tenses of karma, and fourteen steps to liberation from karma. In dealing with karma, there are also five limited vows (stricter versions of the layman's vows), three assistant vows, four vows of performing religious rituals, and eleven promises. Jainism does not have a commonly-accepted scripture. It was 1,000 years between Mahavira's death and the formation of scripture. Teachings were transmitted orally by disciples (like Gautama, Sudharma, and Jambu) and disputes arose over the accuracy with which the oral traditions were committed to writing. A Council of monks first codified these teachings at a council during the reign of the Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta (ca. 317-293 B.C.). This canon consisted of portions of the Purvas (ancient texts), the eleven Angas (limbs or sections), and several other miscellaneous texts. Sikhism
The scriptures of Sikhism are the Granth Sahib, which are written in six different languages and was compiled by Arjan. Because very few Sikh followers are learned in six languages, devotion is generally aimed at the book itself instead of the contents. The teachings of Sikhism are simple. "Sikh" means disciple and the teachings of Sikhism are an attempted blend of Hindu and Islamic thought. The first basic principle is that there is one God, who is absolute and sovereign. However, he is impersonal (virtually equated with truth and reality). Second, salvation is the merging of the individual with the world soul. Salvation is the love‑union with God and individuals must pass through reincarnation many times until the union with the "true Guru" (God) occurs. Third, evil deeds are caused by personal pride. This power can only be broken by praising the true name (Sat Nam) of God.
Zorastrianism/Parsi The "Parsi" were Persians who left Persia (modern Iran) around 900 A.D. in search of religious freedom away from Islamic rule. These were the followers of ancient Persian Zoroastrianism and they went to India on the advice of an astrologer-priest as a part of the "divine plan". Their Scripture is the Avesta. Their voyage is recounted in the tale of Sanjan (ca. 1600 A.D. written). They landed on the N.E. coast of India ca. 936 A.D. and were given permission to settle by a local prince on their agreement to 3 conditions - they were to speak the local language, observe local marriage customs, and men were not to carry weapons. 17th century British traders settled the Bombay islands as a new commercial base. To attract immigrants, they offered justice and religious freedom. The Parsi were eager and helped develop the port of Bombay, becoming wealthy as this became India's commercial capital. They also got western educations and rose to power in official positions. Behramshah Shroff (1857-1927 A.D.) claimed he was taken to a hideout in Persian mountains to see ancient treasures and teachings from Zoroastrian Persia. Parsis Zoroastrianism is separated now into a "westernized" version and an orthodox Theosophy style. Most Parsi follow neither approach, preferring to follow the faith of their forefathers. They know little of official or historic theology of their religion. However, they do seek to follow its basic ideals and values in everyday life. The ordinary Parsis seek good thoughts, words, and deeds. There are daily prayers and the inspiration of a personal pilgrimage to the temple. The present number of Parsi is estimated between 100,000-200,000. Initiation comes at puberty (although often at 9 years old). "Naujote" is only performed on those who by free will have chosen to be part of "God's army". It is an initiation into the responsibilities of religion. The rite involves the first public donning of the sacred shirt and cord. Death - the temporary victory of evil, so it is a place where demons are present. Funeral rites are meant to limit the spread of evil. The body is carried to dakhma or the tower of silence, stripped, and left in the open for the vultures. Exposure is preferred because earth, water, and fire are sacred creations of God and are not to be polluted with death. Fire Temples ‑ fire has been a focus from early times, being viewed as a divinely‑ created icon. There is no congregational worship. Prayer is personal and private. Fire is the "living image" of God. Buddhism
After six years of increasingly severe asceticism, Gautama determined to seek holiness by meditation. Sitting under a fig tree, deep in contemplation, Gautama claimed to have reached his goal - "The Great Enlightenment." He claimed that what he sought came to him on three successive nights. First, he saw his previous lives pass before him. Second, he saw with supernatural insights the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. He also recognized the law that governs it. Third, the Four Noble Truths were revealed to him. Thus, Gautama became a "Buddha" (enlightened one). The Four Noble Truths: A. the knowledge of suffering ‑ all individual existence is miserable B. the origin of suffering ‑ desire and ignorance C. the destruction of suffering ‑ eternal release from suffering by being freed from the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth D. the way to the removal of suffering ‑ the Noble Eight-fold Path 1) Right Knowledge (Views) ‑ accept the Four Noble Truths and Eight-fold Path 2) Right Attitude (resolve) ‑ a mental attitude of goodwill, peaceableness, avoiding sensual desire, hatred and malice 3) Right Speech ‑ speech must be wise, truthful, and concerned with reconciliation. Lying, gossip, and useless chatter are outlawed. 4) Right Action (Behavior) ‑ murder, stealing, and adultery are prohibited. Destroy no living creatures and take only what is given to you 5) Right Occupation ‑ livelihood earned in a way which harms no one 6) Right Effort ‑ striving to abandon evil qualities and develop good ones 7) Right Contemplation ‑ be observant, alert, free of desire and sorrow 8) Right Meditation ‑ after abandoning sensuous pleasures, evil qualities, and joy and sorrow, then you must enter the four degrees of meditation
Buddhism also teaches: A. that the unity of the individual human personality is an illusion. The doctrine is that of Non-self (an-atman). B. that the goal is "nirvana' and this is "the end of all suffering". It can only be described by negatives. Nirvana can be experienced before death through meditation. C. The layman's one and only religious task is to increase his store of merit through one of four paths: 1. Observe the "five precepts" and add three fast days to each feast day 2. Devotion for the "Three Treasures"? 3. Generosity toward Buddhist monks 4. Worship the relics (teeth and bones) of the Buddha D. There are five precepts taught by Buddhism that all Buddhist should follow: 1. Kill no living thing (including insects). 2. Do not steal. 3. Do not commit adultery. 4. Tell no lies. 5. Do not drink intoxicants or take drugs.
There are other precepts that apply only to monks and nuns. These include: 6. Eat moderately and only at the appointed time. 7. Avoid that which excites the senses. 8. Do not wear adornments (including perfume). 9. Do not sleep in luxurious beds. 10. Accept no silver or gold.
Divisions of Buddhism - After the death of Guatama, arguments between monks led to a split and two versions of Buddhism emerged. The Theravadins are strict and conservative. "Theravada" means "teaching of the ancients" and this group prides itself on keeping to Gautama's original teaching. Their opponents provided the nickname "Hinayana" (small vehicle) which chides them as an exclusivist movement. The smaller of the two, Theravada Buddhism continues today in Burma, Thailand, Kampuchea, Laos, and Sri Lanka. The emphasis of this form is the individual's efforts toward salvation without help from deities, rituals, or images. The Mahasanghikas take their nickname "Mahayana" (great vehicle) as a statement of their view that salvation is for all mankind. Many concessions are made to popular piety. "Bodhisattva" is the name given to those who postpone becoming Buddhas in order to save others. Mahayana Buddhism is the form which has influenced the west. Zen (Japanese name for Mahayana Buddhism) is built around the concept of meditation and it is not taught through scriptures. It is based on self-effort and one of its attractions is that one is not required to be responsible in evaluating anything in the world or their own thinking. Zazen is the method of sitting in Zen meditation at specific times under the direction of a master (roshi). The meditator sits in the full or half-lotus position on a cushion. Zazen ends with the sound of a wooden clapper, ringing a bell three times, and chanting the four great vows. A Koan is a verbal puzzle given by the master to aid his pupil toward enlightenment.[2] Satori is the sudden illumination that brings the mediator into maturity. It is momentary, but may be repeated. Japanese Buddhism has branched off into a number of sects - Tendai, Shingon, Zen, and Nichiren.[3] China The Chinese have the oldest continuous culture, with the first dynasty in recorded history being the Shang (1751 - 1050 B.C.). Religion was important to everyday life. Powers and spirits directly influenced lives (success or failure) and required sacrifice and appeasement. Divination was practiced because the Shang wanted to know the will of the spirits for everything. From 2500 B.C. onward, the Chinese had a separate, continuous culture with a written language (pictographic). Their earliest religion was based on one supreme sky-God (Shang-Ti/Hao-Tien "emperor above"), no myths or idols, a strict moral code, and animal sacrifice. "Concern" is the basis of the cosmos ‑ heaven's concern for human well-being. The ancient Chinese employed a pictographic writing system that very possibly parallels the major elements of Genesis 1-11. Things like creation, the Garden of Eden, the flood, and Tower of Babel may be recorded as small symbols were combined to form more complex ideas. Some examples are: 1) "Shang Ti" = emperor + above/heavenly 2) "Spirit" = rain + three person + worker of magic 3) "Create" = dust/mud + life + walking + to talk (Gen.2:7) 4) "garden" = dust + breath + two persons + enclosure 5) "west" = first + man + enclosure (Gen.2:15) 6) "necessity" = west + woman (Gen.2:15,18) 7) "Tempter" = trees + cover + devil [devil = secret + man + garden] (Gen.3:1‑6) 8) "covet/desire" = trees + woman (Gen.3:1‑6)
(eight people in a vessel ‑ Gen.7:7)
10) "Tower" = mankind + one + mouth + undertake + clay {brick} (Gen.11:1‑9)[4] Once this information was published, other studies were pursued and more has been learned. Before Moses, during the “Legendary Period” (prior to 2205 B.C.), the Chinese were offering sacrifices to ShangDi at the eastern border of China. Traditionally, the Chinese viewed ShangDi as the Supreme God, Creator of Heaven and earth. He was to be obeyed by all of humanity and even the emperors were to obey the mandates of heaven in order to rule the Chinese people with love, compassion, and justice. The Chinese classics (written before 400 B.C.) described ShangDi as having attributes that were consistent with Yahweh. Traditionally, only the worthy (good deeds, prestige, moral character) emperors, who functioned as high priests to ShangDi, were allowed to offer this “Border Sacrifice” (an unblemished bull or sheep). In honor of ShangDi, the great Temple of Heaven was built in the Forbidden City within Beijing. Some researchers have even concluded that the ancient Chinese looked upon the sacrificed sheep as taking their sins away and expected a Savior to come to them and show them the way to eternity.[5] Degenerating priesthoods and society brought on the great 6th century revolt. There were three noted moral philosophers - Confucius (551-479 B.C.), Mencius (371-289 B.C.) who experienced a presence within his heart of something greater, and Hsun-Tzu (298-238 B.C.). These men were working from a foundational belief in the inherited religion of the Lord on High/heaven. They promoted balance/harmony in living, not the absence of passion. "Filiel piety," or respect for parents, was to perfect men and women within the world. Ancient Mongolians worshipped a supreme deity named Tengri, which was the word for "god" and "blue sky." Tengri was not represented in pictures and he was not the creator. They believed in two creators: one a good spirit, the other a devil. Genghis Khan (d. 1227 AD.) was considered to be of heavenly descent. Shamans cured diseases and claimed access to divine hidden knowledge while in a trance. Taoism -
The founders were Lao-Tzu
(ca. 2nd century A.D.) and Chuang-Tzu. They sought to turn
away from society to contemplate nature, passive acceptance, and
mystical contemplation. Taoists sought to become immortals (a "hsien").
They revived belief in personal deities, prayers, and appeasement.
They fostered the art of "alchemy" using yoga and meditation.
Mystical tradition
Confucianism -
Confucius was non-committal/agnostic on the existence of "gods."
What did concern him was the decadence of China in his day,
including things like warlords killing large
Thus, Confucius saw his task as that of "transmitter" of the values of the past - the teachings of antiquity. He wanted to call China back to the "good old ways" of earlier times. He had little success during his own lifetime, but the emperor Wu Ti (ca. 136 B.C.) supported his teachings after Confucius died. Confucian scholars were put in charge of the educational system and the Confucian ideals were taught to the governing classes for the next two thousand years. Shinto
The term kami, while hard to define, seems to refer to the gods or spirits that rule over various areas of Japanese life and are worshipped at the shrines. Sometimes the term was applied to beasts, birds, plants, seas, mountains, natural phenomena, storms, the echo and wind in the gorge and grove, and to the clan of ancient ancestors and warriors.[6] An Outline of Recent Shinto History 17th century A.D. ‑ strong revival of pure Shinto 1853 A.D. ‑ Admiral Perry broke Japanese isolation 1868 A.D. – The Shogun abolished his office and the emperor became the supreme ruler in fact. Shortly after 1868, the emperor Meiji made Shinto the state religion of Japan. 1882 A .D. ‑ A separation was made between "sect Shinto" (religious) and "shrine Shinto" (non-religious and patriotic). 1911 A.D. ‑ School teachers were required to take classes to shrines 1931 A.D. ‑ with the invasion of Manchuria, the militarist party promoted Shinto in elementary and secondary schools. 1931-1945 A.D. ‑ deification and worship of the Japanese state 1945 A.D. ‑ Allied occupation and Douglas MacArthur abolished state Shinto Shinto Scripture and Doctrine - Two important books were composed around 720 B.C. and these are Ko-ji-ki ("records of ancient matters") and Nihon-gi ("chronicles of Japan"). Kami is the sacred power in animate/inanimate objects, superior beings. Nippon (sun origin) is the Japanese name for their country. Mikado means "true son of heaven." Shinto has two basic doctrines and these are that (1) Japan is the country of the gods and (2) the Japanese people are different in "kind" not degree from other humans (similar to Hitler's "Aryan" myth of racial superiority). Shinto is not a system of doctrines or moral behavior. Shinto has no recognized human founder, sacred writings (as such), nor authoritative moral beliefs. Immorality abounds in Shinto stories.
--------------------------------------------------------- Charles E. McCoy 4/18/2006
Notes:
[1] Encyclopedia Britannica, (1992), "Hinduism" 20:529-537. [2] See examples in Josh McDowell and Don Stewart's Handbook of Today's Religions: Understanding Non-Christian Religions, (San Bernardino, CA: Here's Life Publishers, 1982), pp. 68,69. [3] Parrinder, World Religions, pp. 363-370. [4] C. H. Kang and Ethel R. Nelson, The Discovery of Genesis (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1979). [5] Kui Shin Voo and Larry Hovee, “The Lamb of God Hidden in the Ancient Chinese Characters,” Creation ex Nihilo Technical Journal 13:1 (1999), pp. 81-91; Ethel R. Nelson and Richard E. Broadberry, Genesis and the Mystery Confucius Couldn’t Solve (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1994); Ethel R. Nelson, Richard E. Broadberry, and Ginger Tong Chock, God’s Promise to the Chinese (Dunlap, TN: Read Books Publishers, 1997). [6] Geoffrey Parrinder, ed., World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present (New York: Facts on File, 1983), p. 355.
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Ramakrishna
Mission
Krishna
Consciousness Society
The founder of Sikhism was Nanak (ca. 1469-1539 A.D.). Emphasis was
placed on the role of "Guru" (teacher). There were ten orthodox
Gurus between 1469-1708 AD., with each appointing his own
successor. Angad declared that Nanak was equal to God. After the
death of the tenth guru, authority was shifted from the gurus to the
sacred book, Granth Sahib. The orthodox Sikh gurus are
listed in the box to the right.
Sikhism is not a missionary religion. It originated in Pakistan and
northwest India in an area called the Punjab (5 rivers) area and is
focused around the Golden Temple in 
The founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama (b. 560 B.C.)
born in Lumbini, near the modern border of India and Nepal.
Although raised in luxury, the sight of an old man, an invalid in
pain, a funeral procession, and an ascetic monk caused him to see
that misery was the common fate of mankind. At the age of 29 he
left his wife and child to search for enlightenment, renouncing
wealth and royalty. This is "the Great Renunciation."
9) "Boat" = vessel + eight + mouth
developed of marvelous drugs, wonder-working
immortals, levitations, and bodily ascensions to heaven. The one
major goal was freedom from political and social constraints of
Confucianism, to search for immortality, and to search for oneness
with the Tao itself (Tao was the sum total of things which change,
the principle of the universe and pattern for behavior). Tao
doesn't "control" actions, but allows them to develop naturally and
spontaneously. A symbol often associated with Taoism is the
yingyang (right).
numbers of captives and
reports of cannibalism. He wanted to put China back in touch with
the wisdom of the ancients, believing that the ancient Chinese had
attained social perfection in the five basic human relationships:
(A) Ruler/Subject, (B) Father/Son, (C) Husband/Wife, (D) Oldest
son/Younger brothers, and (E) Elders/Younger persons.
"Shinto" comes from the Chinese words "Shen Tao" (way of the gods).
This name was applied in the 6th century A.D. to distinguish it from
Buddhism. Rooted in Japanese mythology (right), "Shinto" is the deification
of the Japanese islands and people.
Shinto shrines are located all over Japan and are noted for their
characteristic gateway (right). Worshippers approach the worship
hall through this large, symbolic gate, and then simply stand
outside, toss a coin into the offering box, pull a bell rope, clap
their hands twice, bow briefly in prayer, clap their hands again,
and leave. The bell rope and clapping are intended to awaken the
kami to the worshipper’s presence.
